Steve Tyree - Articles and Papers

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             Steve Tyree - Presentation at DMAS 95
                           8/8/95
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 Introduction
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 I would like to thank the Desert Marine Aquarium Society for in-

viting me to speak here tonight. This presentation is a warmup 

for Macna 95 next month in Louisville where I will be talking 

the first night of that conference. Unfortunately, I am still 

doing research for that presentation but will be able to present 

some information concerning coral bleaching. That information has 

yet to be written to paper but many of the ideas will be discussed.   

The main body of this presentation is an update to the talk I have

given at Cleveland Ohio, Bucks County Pennsylvania, Los Angeles

and Orange County California.


 This presentation primarily concerns the keeping of small polyped 

stony corals that harbor symbiotic zooxanthellae (scientifically 

called hermatypic corals). Many people have refered to these corals

along with coralline algae as the builders of the reefs. The corals 

are a colonial species that contains numerous polyps that live 

within calices that share a common calcium argonite based skeleton. 

For the remainder of this presentation I will refer to them as SPS 

or Small Polyped Stony Corals. A few years ago they were thought to 

be impossible to keep in semiclosed captive systems, but thanks 

to the efforts of some Europian Aquarists, (Alf Nilsen, Detrich 

Stuber, Peter Wilkens, Dr. Jaubert and Sven Fossa to name a few) 

we are beginning to unravel the difficulties associated with their 

captive maintenance requirements. 


 Lets start by showing some slides of my main 180 gallon reef a 

few months before tearing it down for a move late in 94. [SLIDES 

(5/31/94) = N3-2 Left, N3-7 Center, N3-16 right] Many of these 

corals have been sold to reefkeepers around the country. I do not 

recommend anyone trying to duplicate this for a long term captive 

reef setup. The main reason is growth. Once this corals start 

growing, they will be running out of space very quickly. It is 

much better to start from a lower density and grow the corals into 

the captive reef. That is one of the reasons I decided to install 

two 180 gallon reefs into my new residence. [Slides (2/12/95) =

I4-35 180-A and 180-B, I4-33 180-A]. (Note how in 180-A that large

mother colonies are give plenty of room to grow. 180-B now fully

stocked and both reefs are more mature. Also coralline plated over 

a few months after photos.) In addition to these reefs I also have 

a 110 gallon tranship and fragment growout reef. [Slide (6/17/95) 

by Dr. Bruce L. Haase from East Stroudsburg University Pa..]


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 Why SPS Corals ?
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 Some of you may have wondered why all the fuss over Acropora,

Pocillopora, Stylophora and other SPS corals. When cared for

properly, these corals can grow at very quick rates and also

keep and develop some beautiful color pigments. Here are some

typical specimans. [SLIDES  Q3-8 Pocillopora verrucosa (spawner),

D3-32 Montipora spongodes (rare in captivity), G4-25 Acropora 

hyacinthus? table, F4-21 Acropora cytherea table, X3-26 Pocillo-

pora damicornis (close-up), B4-14 Pavona decussata].


 In my reefs I also use moon cycles or night irradiance, this 

allows me to view the corals at night when all thier tentacles 

are extended out to feed. So they do look like more than just 

rocks. Additionally, as the corals vitality increases, so will

the daytime polyp extension rate. [SLIDE V4-3 (7/31/95) Favites

on live rock from Fiji.] Note - Daytime polyp extension. Some

of these corals also contain very interesting growth forms or 

ecomorphs. Many species are easy to break or fragment to create

new small colonies for trade or sale. This is primarily possible 

due to the corals colonial nature. They also harbor many asso-

ciate species like crabs and fish that seldom if ever leave the 

coral colony. [SLIDES I3-2 Typical Associate Pocillopora crab, 

K3-5 Typical Associate Stylophora Crab (mated pair), I3-24 Wierd 

Black Crab in a Acropora divaricata. Some of these associates 

consume coral slime and lipids and even though they appear to

cause no long term damage to the colonies health, the scienti-

fic literature refers to them as parasites since they are con-

suming products the coral creates. Other non-parasitic asso-

ciates, simply eat anything that falls into the branches of 

the colony. Most aquarist have found them to be beneficial 

symbiotic partners. Almost all my coral colonies have these 

symbiots.

[ Slide U4-11 (7/23/95) Colorful slide for long section of 

talking ]


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 Captive Hardware Requirements
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 There currently are three main approaches to keeping reef 

organisms. Algal Turf Scrubbing, Jaubert's Live Sand Bed and

the Berlin Methodology. All three systems have many similar-

ities. They keep inorganic nitrate levels low and can support

fish and soft octocorals quite adequately. All these systems

are based on the "Nature's System" developed by Eng in the 

Phillipines during the late 60's and early 70's. Live rock with

or without live sand is used in conjunction with moderate to 

strong water motion. These three systems do differ in additonal 

filtration methodology and the resulting calcification poten-

tials. While the Algal Turf Scrubbing System might support 

natural calcification potentials, the high dissolved organic 

compound levels and proliferating algal growth seems to inhibit 

this rate. We are all still researching the Jaubert Live Sand 

Bed and should await Dr. Jaubert's presentation at Macna VII for

furthur clarification. The Berlin Method (as it is known in the

states) utilizes a foam fractionator to remove dissolved organ-

ics and includes the addition of Ca(OH)2 via kalkwasser topoff 

water for calcium replenishment. Recently, german reefkeepers 

have been experimenting with a Calcium Carbonate Reactor termed 

the Lubbock Reactor. 


 Now I would like to overview the captive hardware requirements 

that I utilize to maintain SPS coral species. You should get 

as large a tank as possible within your budget and use as large

a sump as possible. I have found that the greater the water 

volume to coral ratio, the greater the short term and long term

stability of the system. You should also discover that calcium 

levels and alkalinity levels are easier to maintain due to the 

increased buffer capacity of the system. My sumps will hold 

about 40 % of the main tanks water volume when in operational 

mode. Some SPS corals do release quite a bit of coral slime when

distressed by movement, exposed to air, stung by adjacent corals 

or covered with particulate matter. A larger volume of water will

help dissapate this slime until removal via protein skimming. 

High quality live rock should be placed in the main aquaria and 

can also be positioned in the sump area. Live rock kept in the 

darker sump will provide a refugia for those life forms that 

prefer low lighting (an example would be sponges). Some also use 

live sand and I personally prefer to place it in a live sand 

refugia or in the sump. Many of these corals require lots of water

motion and this motion can suspend the sand or move it into a 

corner. When positioning pump outputs, do not direct a constant 

strong stream directly at an SPS coral. You can eventually blast 

the tissue off. In fact scientist have used a water pick in the 

laboratory when coral tissue needed to be romoved for analysis. 

One way to create non-liner or chaotic current flows is by direct-

ing outputs of pumps so that water currents collide. Additionally,

random or preset timers can control the pumps length of time on 

or power ratio. I am currently using a rotating Gemini pump in

each 180 gallon reef that rotates through a 90 degree arc once

per minute. They work very well and the polyp extension rate of

my corals including acropora tables has increased.


 One item that I think is essential to long term success with 

SPS corals, is the Protein Skimmer or Foam Fractionator. Buy the

most effective one you can afford and learn how to keep it tuned 

to produce the right amount and consistancy of foam. 1995 has 

been an exciting and confusing year for reef lighting systems.

New 10,000 K and 20,000 K bulbs have appeared on the market from

Germany and the US. I am currently experimenting with 3 different

lighting setups. My main 180 has 3-6500 K 175 watt metal halides

that provide an 11 hour photoperiod. Two 160 watt VHO actinic

03's are used for twilight and kept on all day to stimulate coral

pigments. In addition to these bulbs 2-400 watt 20,000 K bulbs

come on at mid-day for a 6 hour peak period. This setup has pro-

duced some exciting colorations in the corals [ Slide T4-27 

(7/16/95) ALREADY SHOWN,  V4-11 (7/31/95) Stylophora pistillata,

T4-32 (7/16/95), T4-27 (7/16/95), ] My second 180 currently has

3-175 watt 10,000 K metal halides with 2-140 watt VHO fl bulbs.

The front fluorescent is a daylight bulb and the back one is an

actinic 03. This setup has kept many of the colorful pigments

that the corals came in with. [SLIDE R4-4 (6/25/94) Green Monti-

pora digitata, V4-27 (7/31/95) Green/Blue Fiji Pocillopora dami-

cornis ]. The tranship and fragment growout reef has 3-175 watt

20,000 K metal halides with 2-110 watt VHO daylight bulbs. The

new high color temperature metal halides provide a strong green,

blue, violet and upper UV-A that more closely matches the type

of light corals at average reef depths recieve. Some of the new

species that we are beggining to see can be very colorful. 

[SLIDE P4-9 Purple ACropora austera ? ]. You will also find that

the all blue and purple colored Acropora from Fiji will turn 

brown if not kept under the higher color temperature bulbs. 



 When replacing evaporated water it is best to use Reverse 

Osmosis and/or Deionized water for topoffs. Topoff water should 

also be mixed with Calcium Oxide or Hydroxide to form kalkwasser

which is added every day via drip or morning manual addition. 

This will provide steady calcium replenishment. Exercise caution

if you do use kalkwasser. Calcium is not only consumed by SPS 

corals but some soft corals incorporate calcium into spicules to 

help create a stronger body structure. [SLIDE U-31 Dendronephthya 

species Soft Coral (spicules closeup)]. 


 There is no mechanical filtration utilized in my reefs other 

than the particulate matter that is removed via foam fractiona-

tion. There are no overflow sponges, filter floss or micron 

filters used, but GAC was utilized once during the 9 months that

these new reefs have been setup. The lack of mechanical filtra-

tion helps support the planktonic population and helps the lar-

vae of various reef organisms to survive and settle. Particulate

matter is kept in suspension in the main reef until either fish

or coral polyps consume it or the overflow takes it into the 

sump. The sump has a particulate matter settling area that con-

tains live sand and a few associated sand sifting organisms.


 When you have a high density of SPS corals growing rapidly in a 

semi-closed system, you will find that the calcium demand will in-

crease dramatically. One may have to resort to Calcium Chloride,

which requires adding additional buffer, or adding a highly

concentrated or non-decanted Kalkwasser via a milky swirl. If this

is done a pH meter is required to prevent a rise above 8.5. 

According to Sven Fossa, many of the best SPS reef tanks in Europe

utilize CO2 injection to keep the pH below 8.5 in late afternoon 

when it is climbing to its peak value. Some people have also re-

ported success with organic or chelated calcium additives but I 

use Kalkwasser and Calcium Chloride. In his 1995 South Western

Conference presentation, Alf Nilsen described the Lubbock Calcium

Carbonate Reactors currently being used in Germany. Calcareus

gravel is placed inside the reactor where Carbon Dioxide in in-

jected to bring the pH level down to 6.5. This allows the gravel

to dissolve as replenishment water is pumped through and slowly

added to the reef system. You may need to use 2 separate pH con-

trollers to regulate the CO2 addition and to make sure the pH in

the reef does not drop too low. Alf did mention that the current

method of choice is to just run the water through the reactor

continously along with a very slow injection of CO2. That might

eliminate the need for two high quality pH controllers.


 In my high calcification demand reefs, I have recently begun to

experiment with adding raw Ca(OH)2 powder into my rather large 

sump, during low pH periods, in addition to adding kalkwasser 

makeup water. When putting in raw Ca(OH)2 powder, I add 2 tea-

spoons in the morning when pH is lowest, and each teaspoon is 

added 45 minutes apart. The effect on the pH is minimal and very 

little calcium carbonate is forming. When doing this it is best 

to not elevate the calcium concentration of the reef too high as 

it then becomes more difficult to dissolve additional calcium 

into the water. If this procedure is done correctly into a large 

sump. no cloudiness will enter the main reef. You may have to stir 

up the sump water to help dissolve the Ca(OH)2 powder. At night 

when pH is falling from its daytime peak, I add normal kalkwasser 

to replace evaporated water.


 Another item essential to long term success with SPS corals, are

herbivores. Each SPS reef should contain a few tangs and other

algae eating organisms like astrea snails and hermit crabs. Dr.

Adey noted during the 94 Western Conference, that algae do hold

a competitive edge on the tropical reef and if herbivores are 

lacking, the algae can take over the reef. This has occured in 

many Carribean reefs, the Mediterranian Sea and isolated reefs 

in the pacific where nutrient levels have become elevated. I 

am sure that many of us here can attest to the fact that semi-

closed systems also exhibit this problem. In the major stony 

reef regions of the Indo-Pacific, nutrient levels are low and cal-

cification potentials are high enough to limit the algal growth.

Once the herbivores get control of the algal growth in our semi-

closed systems, supplemental feeding may have to be increased. 

Our semi-closed systems, even with adequate protein skimming, 

will have a higher nutrient concentration in the water when 

compared to most natural reefs. Herbivores can keep the micro 

and macro algal growths under control while the symbiotic coral

zooxanthellae can utilize the increased nutrients in the water. 


 That is all the time I would like to spend on hardware require-

ments this evening. I highly recommend that everyone who is in-

terested in setting up an SPS coral reef, purchase a copy of the

new book from Charles Delbeek and Julian Sprung "The Reef Aqua-

rium". It explains in detail some of the items I have glossed 

over concerning hardware requirements and will save you a lot 

of money in the long run.
 
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 SPS Vitality
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 Before we discuss vitality, growth and pigmentation, lets re-

view the basic structure of the symbiosis of SPS corals. [Slide 

U2-14 Pocillopora verrucosa 100 day old juvenile] (Note the 

brown spots that are zooxanthelae). The hermatypic SPS corals

all contain zooxanthellae within their polyp tentacles and 

tissues, This symbiosis consists of a host animal (the coral)

and a symbiot plants (the zooxanthellae algae). To fully under-

stand the captive behavior of this symbiosis, the plant and 

animal should be examined and discussed seperately.


 If you position your SPS corals in an environment where water

current, light intensity, light spectrum and water temperature

are identical to those that the coral existed in on the natural

reef, natural growth rates will occur as soon as the coral re-

covers from transportation stress. It is very rare for this to

occur but it occasionally will. What usaully happens is that one

of the before mentioned parameters will be different and the 

coral must not only recover from transportation stress and become

acclimated to the new environment, but also ecomorph or physic-

ally adapt. The coral pigments and zooxanthellae pigments can 

successfully adapt to this new environment if the difference is 

not too great and the transportation stress was minimul. I will 

discuss coral pigments a little later. 

 
 When growth occurs, the new areas may take on a different form.

Thick branched corals prefer sronger currents and if they are

placed in weaker current, new growth on the branch ends will be

thinner. Thin branched coral colonies prefer weaker currents

and new growth will be thicker if the current is strong. [SLIDE

O-25 First and Largest Acropora (shows ecomorphing in branch

thickness and corallite density) 5/19/93] At Macna VI, Dr. 

Buddemier noted that the shallow reef region is a very high 

energy region. In fact, it may be nearly impossible for us to 

provide the same water movement energy without blowing out a 

tank wall or tipping the reef over. We can partially simulate 

this region with random timers, underwater powerheads and even

rotate these powerheads with recent inventions. A dump bucket 

can also be utilized to create wave rhythms. Almost all SPS 

corals do better in a moderate varying water current that

carries waste products away and helps respiration. Some thinly 

branched delicate varities of SPS corals might prefer weaker 

currents. The water flow can also assist the coral colony in 

preventing a buildup of particulate matter in the lower regions 

of the colony. I do occasionally assist large colonies by send-

ing short bursts of current into areas where particulate matter

has collected.
 

 How do you know (before the coral has grown into its captive

environment) that the water current is the correct magnitude 

for each SPS coral? The polyp extension rate seems to be a 

good indicator. If the coral is heavily stressed in its en-

vironment, the individual polyps will not extend at night for 

feeding. If slightly stressed, the polyps will stay in during 

the day and partially extend at night. When the environment 

is not stressing the coral, full polyp extension will occur 

during the night and partial polyp extension will occur during 

the day. What makes this difficult to use as a coral vitality 

indicator, is that each species and ecomorph has different 

lengths considered partial extension. For example, Acropora 

millepora has polyps nearly fully extended during the day. Once

you learn how each species behaves, this indicator can work 

very well. In fact, the healthier the coral gets the greater the

polyp extension will occur during the day. Here are some daytime

polyp extension slides. [SLIDES W3-24 Acropora cytherea table

coral (normal daytime extension), S3-29 Acropora aspera (little

extension with clear tentacles) and Acropora millepora (lots of

extension with colored tentacles), S3-31 Acropora millepora from

previous slide (normal big daytime extension) with a Montipora

digitata exhibting daytime extension, J1-22 Pocillopora verru-

cosa with slighlty stressed extension, A4-17 same Pocillopora

verrucosa with more current and greater extension (healthier),

P-11 Sarcophyton species (this extension rate seemed to depend 

on lighting levels and nutrients in the water), Q-17 Acropora 

species with normal daytime extension, O4-35 same coral in with

better health and greater polyp extension, U-10 Millepora species 

with no polyp extension, Y-22 Same coral with full extension 

(This species seems to exhibit an all or nothing polyp extension

rate. Either the environment is good and extension occurs or no

polyp extension occurs), B4-10 Montipora digitata (daytime),

B4-22 Pocillopora damicornis (daytime), Z3-9 Stylophora pis-

tillata (daytime).


 These corals may extend their polyps during the day to primarily

assist photosynthesis, since zooxanthellae inhabit their ten-

tacles,  and during the night to feed on plankton. You can add 

newly hatched brine shrimp at night for the extremelly small 

polyped corals (Pocillopora, Porites, etc.) and adult brine 

shrimp for the larger polyped SPS acropora. It is best to add the 

shrimp a couple of hours after the twilight light has ended when 

full tentacle extension occurs. These polyps are able to eat 

items much larger then themselves. [SLIDES R1-5 Pocillopora 

verrucosa primary polyp (half consuming a medium sized brine

shrimp), R1-7 same coral (brine shrimp almost fully consumed)].

Ron Shimek on fishnet has speculated that calcium can be trans-

ferred to the coral via a live food that might contain calcium 

in its structure. A coral food paste can be created from shrimp, 

clam, scallop and crab meat from a local grocery store. Adding 

selcon, a product containing fatty acids, to these foods and 

spraying the food over a colony with extended tentacles, could

greatly enhance vitality and growth.

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SPS Growth
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 Just how fast will these SPS corals grow and increase the size

of their calcium based skeletons? These slides will demonstrate

the growth rates achievable in a well maintained captive system

if calcium demand is satisfied. [SLIDES E3-20 Acropora millepora

Blue color on 5/31/94, Q3-20 same coral on 8/8/94, B1-4 Acropora

divaricata (hacked off branch that was tied to rock, note how it

established a foothold on the rock very quickly), S4-36 (7/9/95)

Acropora gemmifera Fiji attached to rock in 2 weeks just by 

itself. no cement or tie down required. A3-15 Montipora digitata 

(hacked off branch end tied to rock with monofilament line) 

3/26/94, D3-27 same coral on 5/3/94, R3-29 same coral on 8/17/94, 

E3-31 Acropora humulis 5/3/94 (new), S3-8 8/28/94 same coral, 

E4-19 1/15/95 same coral, Z-35 Acropora formosa (hacked off branch 

end tied to rock with monofilament line) 8/4/93, D1-5 same coral 

(branch tips turn blue) 8/22/93, I1-3 same coral (encrusting 

fishing line) 9//93, I1-9 same coral same day (shows entire coral 

with lots of growth) 9//93, V2-33 same coral (1/3 tank shot 

showing lots of growth) 2/23/94, R3-20 same coral (full colony 

closeup) 8/17/94, X3-34 same coral (full colony closeup one month 

before move) 9/16/94. Unfortunately, this coral did not survive 

my recent move. Two fragments were saved when the coral started 

mass tissue necrosis and these are doing great and continuing to 

grow at natural rates. [Slide F4-15 (1/29/95) Acropora formosa 

(fragment from above.tall branch in center grew in spurt at ~5 mm 

per 7 days), N4-13 (4/16/95) same fragment, R4-30 (6/25/95) same

fragment, I4-24 (2/12/95) Acropora formosa frag from above (new 

growth), J4-17 (4/1/95) same fragment, R4-27 (6/25/95) same frag-

ment ]. An average branch extension rate for A. formosa is 8 cm 

per 344 days according to a study performed in Thailand and 

published in the journal Coral Reefs.

 
 I acquired my first Acropora on 3/5/92 and the original colony

is still living in captivity and has grown quite large. The

coral did not grow much the first few months and it was not

until July 92 (4 months after placing in reef) that I began

to notice growth. [Slide ACRO1 7/5/92 side view, ACRO2 9/16/92

side view, ACRO3 3/4/93 side view]. The coral seemed to exhibit

growth spurts that would last a few months. [Slide ACRO4 7/5/92

front view, ACRO5 9/16/92 front view, ACRO6 12/25/92 front view,

ACRO7 3/4/93 front view, U9 7/4/93 front view, F1-24 9/13/93

front view, E3-4 5/3/94 front view, Z3-2 1/1/95 front view, 

ACROIN1 (6/17/95) taken by Dr. Bruce L. Haase from East Strouds-

berg University Pa..].


 SPS corals can grow via branch extension, branch diameter ex-

pansion or by encrusting grows. New branch extension growth will

be void of any zooxanthellae. As will be demonstrated later,

the zoox dominate color appears brown to our unaided eyes. So 

new branch tips will lack a brown color. [Slide - B4-25 Millepora

fire coral (note - white color at new tips)]. New encrusting 

growth can also exhibit a non-brown color. [Slide F4-28 (1/29/95)

Acropora formosa fragment with new encrusting growth, I4-21 

(2/12/95) Same fragment 2 weeks later, J4-29 (4/1/95) same coral

fragment (note - lack of branch growth), F4-32 Acropora formosa 

with new encrusting growth, F4-12 (1/29/95) Acropora encrusting 

with same color on leading edge (note - new axial polyp, I4-11

(2/12/95) same fragment 2 weeks later, O4-30 (5/21/95) same en-

crusting coral]. The rate of growth for encrusting corals can 

be fast. [Slide Z3-16 Acropora millepora 1/1/95 starting encrust-

ing, A4-24 same coral 1/7/95 (6 days later).


 Acropora species come in many different species and growth 

forms. Table type species can grow very well in captivity too.

[SLIDE W3-23 (9/12/94) Table from Mike Paletta. Cannot see back

where Pocillopora settled, E4-14 (1/15/95) After move. note -

settled Pocillopora damicornis, K4-18 (4/1/95) Couple of months

later, N4-24 (4/16/95) 2 weeks later, R4-20 (6/25/95) 2 months

later, R4-18 (6/25/95) closeup of pocillopora, T4-18 (7/16/95)

3 weeks later, T4-21 (7/16/95) side view, U4-6 (7/23/95) 1 week

later]. New acropora table growth can also ba a little strange.

[SLIDE - G4-20 (1/29/95) New Acropora anthocercis table, J4-23

(4/1/95) 2 months later, J4-26 (4/1/95) note new encrusting

growth over bandage, O4-7 (5/21/95) new growth areas from main

table, R4-21 (6/25/95) 1 month later, R4-15 (6/25/95) closeup

of new growths. note - lack of zooxanthella. ]

 Acropora with colorful tips that are used to shield the new 

areas from UV-A light, can also grow a good rates. [SLIDE N4-5

(4/16/95) Acropoa nana with colorful tips, R4-13 (6/25/95)

same coral 2 months later. note - colorful tips still strong.]

Here is another coral colony that was grown from a small frag-

ment. [SLIDE S3-15 (8/28/94) About one year after making a small 

fragment of a colorful acropora I shipped to the east coast, 

B4-29 (1/7/95) about 4 months later, G4-3 (1/29/95) 3 weeks

later. note - coral is much larger now.]


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 SPS Pigmentation
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 Now I would like to discuss SPS coral zooxanthellae pigmenta-

tion, uv shielding pigmentation, photoadaptation and bleaching. 

The zoox pigmentation or population density needs to be discussed 

separatly from any colorful coral pigmentation. Zooxanthellae are 

golden to dark brown in color as you will see in later slides.

We also need to separate tissue necrosis or receding from the

concept of bleaching. Tissue necrosis and receding occur when

the coral animal tissue is dying or disintegrating. This can

occur due to bacterial infections, protozoan infections or

exposures to extremelly harmful environmental factors. Typical 

bleaching occurs while the coral animal tissue is still intact,

but the algal symbiot (zooxanthellae) is expuled from the host.

The lightening of the zooxanthellae pigments has previously 

been refered to as bleaching by some researchers. In most 

cases this color change is due to a photoadaptation response 

of the pigments in the symbiot.



 I prefer to define three types of bleaching that can occur - 

Zooxanthellae Pigment Bleaching (the coral gets lighter in 

color due to pigment size changes in the zooxanthellae), 

Zoox Expulsion Bleaching (the coral turns white due to the

physical removal of zooxanthellae) and Coral UV Pigmentation 

Bleaching (the corals dynamite coloration fades). On the 

opposite end of the scale from bleaching is recoloring. Zoox 

pigments can redarken and zooxanthellae expuled from the 

coral animal can be infused back into the coral. Coral UV 

pigmentation can not only fade but also recolor or intensify.


---------------------------------------------------------------
SPS Coral Photoadaptation
---------------------------------------------------------------


 Scientist have found that SPS corals with zooxanthellae 

symbiots living in deep water, are generally dark brown. The 

symbiotic zooxanthellae are either multiplying resulting in a 

darker brown color or the zooxanthellae light collection pig-

ments are increasing in size. This pigment size shift is similar 

to how our eyes react to light intensity changes. These darker 

colors result from the zooxanthellae trying to capture more of 

the available light. Here is an example of a very dark Stylo-

phora pistillata [SLIDE S3-2 Dark Stylophora pistillata (it 

has lightened in my reef and then darkened or colored due to 

repositioning with respect to the light source)]. The pigments 

in the zooxanthellae can photoadapt to different light envir-

onments and can consequently bleach (which means to lighten or 

fade) and color (which means to darken or intensify).


 The normal distribution for zooxanthellae seems to be re-

stricted to certain patterns within the coral animal tissue 

when the light source is strong. [SLIDE A1-14 Parent Acropora 

and fragment (shows zoox lines)] Some scientists have specu-

lated that under certain conditions the parent coral can lose 

control of its symbiot zooxanthellae population. One contri-

buting factor could be the level of inorganic nitrate-nitrogen 

in the water. This can act like a fertilizer for the zooxan-

thellae. Recently, Dr. Bruce Carlson of the Waikiki Aquarium 

has attributed the darkening of many of his corals to high 

nitrogen levels in his natural seawater well source. I have 

placed some of Dr. Carlsons fragments in my low nitrogen level 

reefs and verified a lightening of this brown coloration. 

[Slide - G4-9 1/29/95 Fragment from a dark chocolate brown 

coral (note lighter color and zoox lines)].



 There is a form of minor bleaching that can occur in our cap-

tive reef ecosystems. Areas of a coral colony that do not re-

cieve very much light while a large section of the colony is 

recieving strong illumination, can bleach and turn white. This

white area will still be living. [SLIDE S3-6 Acropora humulis

with small area of bleaching]. The coral appears to either 

expell zoox from this relatively non-productive area or trans-

port them to a better lighted area of the colony. Normal coral

bleaching is when large areas of a colony turn near or all

white. [SLIDE X3-29 Acropora cuneata severly bleached in some

areas (trying to rescue from a dealers tank), X3-32 Acropora 

palifera or cuneata from deep water in its normal brown color-

ation].


 During the past few months, a tall Acropora loripes colony 

from Fiji has exhibited this minor bleaching or photoadapta-

tion. [Slide I4-6 (2/12/95) Note how top area of colony has

color, but some deep lower sections appear white or bleach-

ed]. [Slide I4-1 (2/12/95) same coral with a closeup of 

minor bleaching area (note how zooxanthellae lines can still 

be seen in white area)]. This means the event is a photo-

adaptation due to self shading or angle of reef lighting. 

The zoox populations could be thinning, relocating or photo-

adapting to the available light.


--------------------------------------------------------------
Zooxanthellae Expulsion Bleaching
--------------------------------------------------------------


 Zoox Expulsion Bleaching in nature has been linked to higher 

than normal water temperatures equal to or greater than 90 F 

and colder than normal  water temperatures equal to or less

than 60 F. It has recently been speculated that the event may 

occasionally occur as an adaptive response to changing 

environmental conditions. This response provides the coral 

the ability to flush its current population of zooxanthellae and 

infuse one more suited to the current environment. This could 

be occurring in a lot of our captive reefs as many brown diatom 

blooms in captive aquaria have been found to be caused by 

zooxanthellae dinoflagellate blooms. Dr. Buddemier noted 

during Macna VI, that some scientist are currently working on 

papers that establish the fact that many different species of 

zooxanthellae exist. This will realy complicate the picture for 

those of us trying to understand what is occuring in our 

captive systems. Sudden changes in normal temperatures can 

cause heat shock to the coral and zooxanthellae symbiosis. 

Research has demonstrated that cellular adhesion is altered 

by heat shock. Some have speculated that the cells contain-

ing the zooxanthellae become loose within the coral animal 

and are eventually expelled. [Slide B4-7 1/7/95 Montipora 

spongodes recoloring after a stark white expulsion bleaching, 

G4-27 1/29/95 same coral almost recolored completely, B4-3 

1/7/95 Oldest Captive acropora recoloring, E4-35 1/15/95 same 

coral recoloring].



 A unique phenomenon occurs when corals are placed under 5500 k 

mh bulbs of high output. In some occasions a darkening can occur 

along with loss of colorful uv pigmentation. This may be due to 

either high inorganic nitrates, mounting horizontal mh bulbs in

a vertical position that affects the spectrum or due to a lack 

of light in the upper UV-A region (actinic 03 or 6500k bulbs). 

The 420 nm peak from the actinic bulb has some power in the 

390nm area and this could help stimulate production of uv pig-

ments. UV-A has been found to stimulate fluoresence and color 

reflecting pigmentation. 390 nm is in the upper UV-A range. 

The 420 nm peak is also a absorbtion spectrum peak area that 

is used by many of the pigments that inhabit zooxanthallae. 

So, lack of actinic 03 or an overall low color temperature, 

may have been causing the above effect. When zooxanthellae 

are exposed to very bright light of proper spectral qualities 

(6500k or high color temperatures) they will normally lighten 

up in coloration. This occurs in nature and may occur in cap-

tive reefs with low inorganic nitrate levels. The zooxan-

thellae pigment chloroplast size shrinks because the light is 

energetic enough to saturate the photosynthesis process, so 

the area of light sampling is decreased. The environment 

needs to be well maintained for this to occur.



 Another type of coloring can occur in our reefs due to self-

shading. Since our lights are stationary in the hoods, we do not

get the angleling light that the sun provides the natural reef

as it travels across the sky. This can cause bottoms of branches

to become darker brown while the tops remain lighter in color.

[SLIDE Y2-32 New white Stylophora pistillata 3/10/94, S3-26 same

coral exhibiting self shading problems on 8/28/94. This coral 

then regained its all white color when positioned closer to the 

light hood. When transferred to its new reef it was placed lower 

and has darkened back up again. The effects of this self shading

bleaching is the opposite of the inner branch whitening or photo-

adaptation. So in extreme cases of self-shading, the zooxan-

thellae might be expelled, repositioned or photoadapt with very 

small light collection pigments.


-----------------------------------------------------------------
UV Protection Pigmentation and Substances
-----------------------------------------------------------------


 The colorful pigmented SPS corals I have worked with have all

exhibited the following phenomenon. As the actinic lights get

older than 4 months, the colorful UV pigments fade. When new 

bulbs are installed, these pigments reverse the fading and become

more intense. This cycle has been observed in my reef 3 times 

now. The newer 10,000 K and 20,000 K metal halides are not only 

keeping colorful UV shielding pigmentation but also intensifying 

them. What do these pigments look like? [SLIDES N3-33 Acropora

loripes from Fiji, D3-4 Small Table Acropora, H3-26 Another

Acropora loripes from Fiji, E3-16 Another Acropora loripes from 

Fiji, H3-23 purple tipped Acropora microclados, T-18 Green 

Actinic glow in Acropora, D1-12 Pink Tipped Acropora secale 

(under halides), F1-35 same coral under actinics (purple tipped),

V4-4 (7/31/95) Acropora austera with pigments on top where light

strikes it]. These colorul UV pigments will generally fade due 

to transportation stress. The following coral was, according to 

Mike Palleta, (the pinkest coral I have ever seen). [SLIDE 

w3-20 Pocillopora woodjensi (as you can see it is not intenselly 

pink)]. It had regained the intense pink pigmentation until it 

was recently moved again. I believe the pink pigmentation re-

coloring was achieved due to bright (6500 k) metal halide light-

ing and low nitrate levels which keep the brown zooxanthellae 

colors lite and also Actinic-R VHO lights from URI that seem to 

promote the intensifying of these pigments. The new 10,000 K and

20,000 K bulbs will at first appear to cause fading in these pink

Pocillopora, Stylophora ans Seriatopora corals. This is due to 

their low red light levels. However, since these bulbs contain

strong irradiance in the Upper UV-A and violet or blue wave-

lengths, they will actually intensify the pigmentation over time

so that the pink will be more intense.


 Corals in nature never recieve UV-C but do recieve varying 

amounts of UV-B light depending on depth, cloud cover and ozone

layer density. UV-A extends much farther into the water than 

UV-B. SPS corals develop a creamy white substance called S-320

that shields the coral from harmful UV-B and lower UV-A. In my 

opinion, unless you want white creamy corals, you should not 

use UV-B light. The Upper UV-A spectrum appears to stimulate 

colorful pigment intensities and can be used with some caution-

ary guidelines. Some species that only exist in deep water may 

not have the ability to produce these colorful UV shielding 

pigments. So exercise caution when increasing the upper UV-A 

range.


 While attempting to research UV absorbing, reflecting and 

flouresing substances and pigments, I found many studies that

researched absorbing substances but very few have been done 

on reflecting and flouresing pigments. From the few articles I

did find, it appears that the reflecting and flouresing pigments

are excited by Upper UV-A light centered in the 390 nm area.


 When SPS corals grow the new areas will be void of symbiotic 

zooxanthellae but can contain UV reflecting and flouresing 

pigments. [Slide C4-31 1/8/95 Acropora cytherea few growth 

areas, F4-20 same coral with many growth areas with pigments, 

A4-11 1/7/95 Acropora blue tip (shows UV flouresing/reflecting 

pigments), G4-1 1/29/95  same coral with some quick growth, 

G4-4 1/29/95 same coral in brighter light, I4-16 Closeup of 

Acropora formosa fragment encrusting at its new base (note 

lack of brown and the colorful UV reflecting pigments), R4-13

(6/25/95) Acropora nana, This coral was show ealier note - purple

tips and green tentacles ].


-----------------------------------------------------------------
Fragmentation
-----------------------------------------------------------------

 As I mentioned earlier many of these SPS corals can be propa-

gated via fragmentation and budding. Here is a slide of all 

the propagated fragments I distributed via the Acropora Challenge

I in 1993. [SLIDE F1-4 Acropora Challenge I fragments]. During

Macna VI, the Breeder's Registry and I distributed juvenile 

Goniopora stokesi buds. [SLIDES R3-5 Goniopora stokesi parent 

right after plucking buds, R3-9 Goniopora stokesi buds right 

after setting in Devcon Epoxy Putty #11600, This epoxy is similar

to Sea Repair Epoxy Putty. This type of epoxy sets quickly, is

moldable like clay but has a limited ability to adhere to rocks. 

You need to jam this epoxy into brace points on the rock. Zspar 

epoxy putty, which is similar to Devcon #11800, takes longer to 

set but has a strong ability to adhere to reef rock. R3-16 same 

buds 12 hours later]. Here are some fragments that have just been 

set in epoxy putty. They are from an Acropora hyacinthus table 

and were made from branch ends that had broken off in the trans-

portation bag. These were auctioned off at Macna VI [SLIDE W3-35 

Acropora table fragments]. Here is another branch from a large 

table coral that was broken off in transit. [SLIDE F4-34] Notice 

how the branch is beginning to encrust at the base. This may be 

the best way to ship Acropora Table Corals into those areas that 

require long transportation times. 

 
 It appears that acropora can be kept under intense flourescent

lighting. You may not experience incredible growth rates, but 

they will survive and can gain colorful pigments if enough UV-A 

light can be provided. Here are some fragments that were distri-

buted from my reef to a southern california reef keeper Nelson 

Seeley. [SLIDES U3-8 fl frags, U3-34 fl frags]. These fragments

lack colorful UV pigmentation, but the addition of bulbs with

stronger actinic have helped bring this pigments out.


-----------------------------------------------------------------
Conclusions
-----------------------------------------------------------------

 A few people have stated that keeping Acropora and other SPS

corals is very easy. Personally, I think those people are doing

the hobby a disservice. Sure it may be possible to keep stressed 

dark brown Acropora in poor conditions and see some growth over 

the years, but keeping these corals in peak condition and vita-

lity long term will take quite a bit of education and effort. 

On a natural reef some of the planula or larvae brooding coral 

colonies can produce hundreds and thousands of offspring per 

month. Maintaining the colorful pigmentaiton while achieving 

natural growth should be the metric we all strive for. I can 

tell you from experience it is difficult but not impossible. 

To help with these difficulties The Breeder's Registry, Bruce 

Carlson and I are sponsering the Sceleractinian Stony Coral 

Challenge Series. Coral fragments are distributed and the parti-

cipants are required to fill out an application and monthly 

forms for one year. I brought along some Challenge Series in-

formational sheets that we passed out at Macna VI. 

 
 Recently, people have been refering to me as "that stony coral

guy". Just to try to show you that I am also interested in fish, 

my last slide is a beautiful photo of a group of Centropyge

loriculus or Flame Angels. [SLIDE S1-12 Centropyge protolarvae] 

They should be plainly visible. Well, what we have here are just 

hatched protolarvae. This will help give you an idea of just how 

hard it is to locate them. I spent a couple of hobby years trying 

to get past the infamous 7 to 9 day barrier.


 In closing, I would just like to recommend that people spend 

some time educating themselves and others about the nature of the 

animals we keep alive in captivity. To me, this is the most im-

portant aspect of our hobby, education and enlightenment. Thank 

You.


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